Research Methodology (RM) Quick Review To Get Pass Marks In BSC THIRD YEAR 2080 (2023)

Scientific Methods and Research: Concept, Definitions of research; Purpose, importance, steps
levels and rigor of research; different paradigms of research.


Concept and Definitions of Research:
Research is a systematic and objective investigation of a subject or problem with the aim of discovering new knowledge, establishing facts, or verifying and testing existing knowledge. Research involves the collection and analysis of data, and the interpretation of results. It is an important tool for advancing knowledge and solving practical problems in various fields such as science, medicine, social sciences, engineering, and business.

Purpose and Importance of Research:
The purpose of research is to gain new knowledge, deepen our understanding of existing knowledge, or solve practical problems. Research helps us to identify and explore new areas of inquiry, generate new hypotheses, test and validate theories, and develop practical solutions to real-world problems. Research also plays a critical role in the advancement of science, technology, and innovation.

Steps in Research:
The steps involved in research include:

    Defining the research problem and objectives
    Reviewing existing literature and studies
    Developing a research design and methodology
    Collecting data through observation, surveys, experiments, or other methods
    Analyzing the data using statistical or other techniques
    Drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings
    Communicating the results through reports, presentations, or publications.

Levels and Rigor of Research:
Research can be conducted at different levels of complexity and rigor, depending on the nature of the problem, the scope of the study, and the available resources. Some common levels of research include exploratory, descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental research. The rigor of research refers to the level of precision, accuracy, and validity of the research methods and results.

Different Paradigms of Research:
Research paradigms refer to the philosophical frameworks and assumptions that guide research inquiry. There are several paradigms of research, including positivism, interpretivism, critical theory, and postmodernism. Each paradigm has different assumptions about the nature of reality, the role of the researcher, the methods of inquiry, and the criteria for validity and reliability. The choice of paradigm depends on the research question, the nature of the data, and the goals of the study.

Basic Types of Researches: Fundamental/Applied research, Descriptive/Analytical research,
Quantitative /Qualitative research, Conceptual/Empirical research, Diagnostic/Hypothesis
testing research, Conclusion oriented/Decision oriented research, Theoretical / Action research,
Longitudinal /Cross sectional research


Basic Types of Researches:

    Fundamental/Applied research:
    Fundamental research, also known as pure research, is a type of research that is conducted to expand the existing knowledge base without any immediate practical application. Applied research, on the other hand, is a type of research that is conducted to solve practical problems or to develop new technologies.

    Descriptive/Analytical research:
    Descriptive research is a type of research that is conducted to describe the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Analytical research, on the other hand, is a type of research that is conducted to explain why and how a phenomenon occurs.

    Quantitative/Qualitative research:
    Quantitative research is a type of research that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is a type of research that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as text, images, and video.

    Conceptual/Empirical research:
    Conceptual research is a type of research that is conducted to develop new concepts or theories. Empirical research, on the other hand, is a type of research that is based on the observation and measurement of phenomena.

    Diagnostic/Hypothesis testing research:
    Diagnostic research is a type of research that is conducted to identify the causes of a problem or to diagnose a condition. Hypothesis testing research, on the other hand, is a type of research that involves the testing of a hypothesis or a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.

    Conclusion oriented/Decision oriented research:
    Conclusion-oriented research is a type of research that is conducted to draw conclusions about a phenomenon or to answer a research question. Decision-oriented research, on the other hand, is a type of research that is conducted to inform a decision or to solve a practical problem.

    Theoretical/Action research:
    Theoretical research is a type of research that is conducted to develop new theories or to test existing ones. Action research, on the other hand, is a type of research that is conducted to solve a specific problem or to improve a specific practice.

    Longitudinal/Cross-sectional research:
    Longitudinal research is a type of research that is conducted over a period of time, with data collected at multiple points in time. Cross-sectional research, on the other hand, is a type of research that is conducted at a single point in time.





Longitudinal research allows researchers to track changes over time and to identify trends or patterns that may emerge. Cross-sectional research, on the other hand, allows researchers to collect data from a large sample of individuals at a single point in time.

Each type of research has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of research method depends on the research question, the nature of the data, and the goals of the study. For example, if a researcher wants to understand the causes of a disease, they may conduct diagnostic research to identify the underlying factors. If a researcher wants to understand how people perceive a new product, they may conduct qualitative research to gather opinions and feedback.

In summary, understanding the different types of research is essential for designing and conducting research studies that can generate accurate and meaningful results. Researchers need to carefully consider their research question, data collection methods, and analytical techniques to ensure that their research is rigorous and reliable.

Research Question: Introduction, types and identification; Research Problem: Definition,
identification of problem, ways of understanding problem, criteria of a good problem, guidelines
for selecting meaningful problem; Research Objective: Definition, broad and specific objectives,
goals; Research Hypothesis: Meaning of research hypothesis, sources of hypothesis, qualities of
workable hypothesis, utilities of hypothesis


Research Question:

A research question is a clear and concise inquiry that a researcher aims to answer through their study. It is typically derived from a problem or issue identified in the field of study. Research questions can be open-ended or closed-ended, and they should be well-defined, focused, and testable.

There are different types of research questions, including descriptive questions, comparative questions, and explanatory questions. Descriptive questions seek to describe a phenomenon or situation, while comparative questions compare two or more variables or groups. Explanatory questions seek to explain why or how a phenomenon occurs.

Identifying a research question is a crucial step in the research process, and it involves reviewing the existing literature, identifying gaps or areas for further investigation, and formulating a clear and focused inquiry.

Research Problem:

A research problem is a statement of an issue or challenge that needs to be addressed through research. It is the starting point of any research study, and it should be well-defined, clear, and concise.

Identifying a research problem involves understanding the context of the study, reviewing the literature, and identifying gaps or issues that need further investigation. A good research problem should be relevant, significant, feasible, and interesting. It should also be well-defined and focused, and it should have clear implications for practice or policy.

Research Objective:

Research objectives are specific and measurable goals that a researcher aims to achieve through their study. They are typically derived from the research question and the research problem, and they provide a clear direction for the study.

Research objectives can be broad or specific. Broad objectives are general statements that describe the overall aim of the study, while specific objectives are detailed statements that describe the specific goals of the study. They should be clear, concise, and achievable within the timeframe and resources available.

Research Hypothesis:

A research hypothesis is a statement that proposes a relationship between two or more variables. It is a tentative explanation of the research problem, and it is used to guide the research process.

A research hypothesis can be derived from existing theories, empirical evidence, or personal observations. It should be testable, specific, and falsifiable. A workable hypothesis should also be supported by existing evidence and should have clear implications for practice or policy.

The utility of a research hypothesis is that it provides a clear direction for the study and allows the researcher to test the validity of their assumptions. It also provides a framework for data analysis and interpretation, and it helps to ensure that the study is focused and relevant.




Sources of hypotheses can include existing theories, observations, previous research, and personal experience. Hypotheses can be categorized as directional or non-directional. Directional hypotheses predict the direction of the relationship between the variables, while non-directional hypotheses predict a relationship but do not specify the direction.

Qualities of a workable hypothesis include clarity, testability, falsifiability, and relevance to the research problem. A good hypothesis should also be supported by existing evidence and have clear implications for practice or policy.

The utility of a hypothesis is that it provides a framework for data analysis and interpretation. It allows the researcher to make predictions about the relationship between the variables and to test the validity of their assumptions. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, it can provide evidence to support existing theories or to inform practice or policy. If the hypothesis is not supported, it can help to refine or revise the research question or to identify new avenues for investigation.

In summary, research questions, problems, objectives, and hypotheses are all essential components of the research process. They provide a clear direction for the study, guide data collection and analysis, and help to ensure that the study is relevant and focused. Researchers need to carefully consider their research question, problem, objective, and hypothesis to ensure that their study is rigorous, valid, and reliable.

Designing of Research work: Introduction, Purposes, Characteristics of a research design,
Principles of designing a research, conceptual framework and its operationalization, Sectors of
research design, Research methods as research designing, similarities and differences between
Research design and research method.


Designing a Research Work:

Research design refers to the overall plan or structure of a research study. It involves the selection of research methods, data collection and analysis techniques, and the identification of variables to be studied. The purpose of research design is to provide a clear and concise framework for conducting a study, which will help ensure that the study is valid, reliable, and informative.

Characteristics of a Research Design:

A good research design should be clear, concise, and appropriate for the research question and problem. It should be based on sound principles of research methodology and should be informed by existing literature and theory. Other characteristics of a research design include:

    Clarity and precision
    Feasibility
    Validity
    Reliability
    Generalizability
    Ethical considerations

Principles of Designing a Research:

Designing a research study involves several key principles, including:

    Clarity of purpose: The purpose of the study should be clear and well-defined.

    Identification of variables: The variables to be studied should be identified and defined clearly.

    Selection of research methods: The appropriate research methods should be selected based on the research question and problem.

    Sampling: A suitable sample size and sampling technique should be selected.

    Data collection: The appropriate data collection techniques should be selected and applied consistently.

    Data analysis: The data should be analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques.

    Interpretation of results: The results should be interpreted carefully and objectively.

Conceptual Framework and its Operationalization:

A conceptual framework is a model or theory that explains the relationships between the variables to be studied. It is used to guide the selection of research methods and data analysis techniques. Operationalization refers to the process of defining and measuring the variables in the conceptual framework.

Sectors of Research Design:

Research design can be divided into several sectors, including:

    Descriptive research: This type of research aims to describe a phenomenon or situation.

    Exploratory research: This type of research aims to explore and generate new ideas or hypotheses.

    Experimental research: This type of research involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on other variables.

    Correlational research: This type of research examines the relationship between two or more variables.

Research Methods as Research Design:

Research methods can also be considered as a research design. The selection of appropriate research methods depends on the research question and problem. Common research methods include surveys, interviews, case studies, experiments, and observational studies.

Similarities and Differences between Research Design and Research Method:

Research design and research methods are closely related but have some key differences. Research design refers to the overall plan or structure of the study, while research methods refer to the specific techniques used to collect and analyze data. Research design provides the framework for the study, while research methods help to operationalize the research question and problem. In summary, research design and research methods are both essential components of the research process, and careful consideration of both is necessary to ensure that the study is valid, reliable, and informative.

Conventional Research Method: Principle and Importance conventional methods, Scientific
methods as conventional methods, Characteristic of a scientific method; Aspects of scientific
Method, Evolution of scientific Studies Steps in scientific methods


Conventional Research Method:

Conventional research methods are those that have been used for a long time and have been found to be effective in generating reliable and valid results. These methods are often based on established theories and concepts, and they have been developed through years of experience and experimentation.

Scientific Methods as Conventional Methods:

Scientific methods can also be considered as conventional methods, as they are widely used in research and have been proven to be effective in generating reliable and valid results. Scientific methods are characterized by their systematic and rigorous approach to data collection and analysis, as well as their reliance on empirical evidence and the scientific method.

Characteristics of a Scientific Method:

The key characteristics of a scientific method include:

    Empirical: Scientific methods rely on empirical evidence, which is gathered through observation, experimentation, or other forms of data collection.

    Objective: Scientific methods are objective, meaning that they are free from personal biases or opinions.

    Systematic: Scientific methods are systematic, meaning that they follow a structured and organized approach to data collection and analysis.

    Replicable: Scientific methods are replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to reproduce the study and obtain similar results.

Aspects of Scientific Method:

The scientific method can be broken down into several key aspects, including:

    Observation: Scientists make observations of the natural world or phenomena.

    Hypothesis: Scientists develop a hypothesis to explain the observed phenomena.

    Prediction: Scientists make predictions based on the hypothesis.

    Testing: Scientists test the predictions through experimentation or other forms of data collection.

    Analysis: Scientists analyze the data to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not.

    Conclusion: Scientists draw conclusions based on the analysis of the data.

Evolution of Scientific Studies:

Scientific studies have evolved over time, and new methods and techniques have been developed to improve the reliability and validity of research results. For example, the development of statistical analysis techniques has made it possible to quantify the significance of research findings and to determine whether they are due to chance or a real effect.

Steps in Scientific Methods:

The steps in scientific methods can vary depending on the research question and problem, but they generally include:

    Formulating a research question or problem
    Conducting a literature review to identify existing knowledge and research gaps
    Developing a research design and methodology
    Collecting data using appropriate methods
    Analyzing the data using appropriate statistical techniques
    Drawing conclusions based on the analysis of the data
    Communicating the research findings through publications or presentations.

In summary, conventional research methods, including scientific methods, are important for generating reliable and valid results in research. These methods are characterized by their systematic and empirical approach to data collection and analysis, and they have evolved over time to improve the reliability and validity of research results. The scientific method, in particular, involves several key aspects, including observation, hypothesis development, prediction, testing, analysis, and conclusion drawing.

Historical Research Method: Nature and Steps in Historical method, Importance and
fundamentals of Historical method, Sources of Historical data, Limitations.


Historical Research Method:

Historical research is a method of inquiry that seeks to understand and explain past events and phenomena. It involves examining historical documents, artifacts, and other sources of information to reconstruct the past and interpret its significance.

Nature and Steps in Historical Method:

The nature of historical research is exploratory and interpretive. It involves a critical examination of primary and secondary sources of information to construct an accurate and detailed account of past events. The steps in historical research typically include:

    Identifying the research question or problem
    Conducting a literature review to identify existing knowledge and research gaps
    Identifying primary and secondary sources of information
    Collecting data from the sources using appropriate methods
    Analyzing and interpreting the data
    Drawing conclusions based on the analysis and interpretation of the data
    Communicating the research findings through publications or presentations.

Importance and Fundamentals of Historical Method:

Historical research is important because it helps us understand the past and its influence on the present. It provides insights into the historical, social, cultural, economic, and political forces that have shaped our world. Historical research also helps us to understand the evolution of ideas, institutions, and technologies.

The fundamentals of historical research include the use of primary sources, such as historical documents and artifacts, and secondary sources, such as historical analyses and interpretations. Historical research also involves the critical examination of evidence and the use of appropriate methods to analyze and interpret data.

Sources of Historical Data:

Sources of historical data include primary sources, such as historical documents, artifacts, and oral histories, as well as secondary sources, such as historical analyses and interpretations. Primary sources can be categorized into two types: physical sources and documentary sources. Physical sources include artifacts, buildings, landscapes, and other material objects. Documentary sources include written records, such as letters, diaries, and government documents, as well as audio and visual recordings.

Limitations:

Historical research has several limitations, including the incompleteness and bias of historical sources, the difficulty of accessing and interpreting some sources, and the possibility of misinterpretation or distortion of historical events. Historical research is also limited by the availability of sources and the scope of the research question or problem. Therefore, it is important for historical researchers to critically evaluate their sources, use appropriate methods to analyze and interpret data, and acknowledge the limitations and potential biases of their research.

Experimental Research Method: Introduction, Types of experiments, steps in experimental
research, Problems in experimentation; Ex-post facto research: definition and technique


Experimental Research Method:

Experimental research is a method of inquiry that involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable. The purpose of experimental research is to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

Types of experiments:

There are two main types of experiments:

    True experiments: In true experiments, the researcher randomly assigns participants to different experimental conditions and manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable. True experiments are characterized by high levels of control and randomization.

    Quasi-experiments: In quasi-experiments, the researcher does not randomly assign participants to different experimental conditions, but instead selects pre-existing groups or naturally occurring events for comparison. Quasi-experiments are characterized by lower levels of control and randomization.

Steps in experimental research:

The steps in experimental research typically include:

    Identifying the research question or problem
    Conducting a literature review to identify existing knowledge and research gaps
    Formulating a hypothesis
    Designing the experiment, including selecting the sample, selecting the independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s), and determining the experimental conditions
    Conducting the experiment
    Collecting and analyzing the data
    Drawing conclusions based on the analysis of the data
    Communicating the research findings through publications or presentations.

Problems in experimentation:

Experimental research is prone to several problems, including ethical concerns, selection bias, measurement error, and experimenter effects. Ethical concerns arise when the experiment involves potential harm to participants or violates their rights. Selection bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population. Measurement error occurs when the instruments used to measure the variables are not reliable or valid. Experimenter effects occur when the behavior of the experimenter influences the behavior of the participants.

Ex-post facto research:

Ex-post facto research is a type of research that examines the relationship between variables that have already occurred or been manipulated by factors beyond the control of the researcher. In ex-post facto research, the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable(s) because they have already occurred or been manipulated by factors beyond their control. Instead, the researcher observes the effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) and attempts to control for extraneous variables that may influence the relationship. Ex-post facto research is often used in social sciences and education research where true experimental designs are not possible or ethical.




Ex-post facto research is often used to study the effects of social, cultural, or environmental factors on the dependent variable(s). For example, a researcher may want to study the effect of gender on academic performance. The researcher cannot manipulate gender, but can observe the effects of gender on academic performance while controlling for other factors such as socio-economic status or prior academic achievement.

Ex-post facto research involves several steps, including:

    Identifying the research question or problem
    Conducting a literature review to identify existing knowledge and research gaps
    Formulating a hypothesis
    Selecting the sample and collecting data on the independent and dependent variables
    Controlling for extraneous variables that may influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
    Analyzing the data
    Drawing conclusions based on the analysis of the data
    Communicating the research findings through publications or presentations.

Ex-post facto research is limited by several factors, including the inability to establish causality and the potential for bias due to the non-random assignment of participants to groups or conditions. However, ex-post facto research can still provide valuable insights into the relationships between variables and inform future research.

Survey Research Method: Introduction, and Importance of survey method, Comparison of
survey method with other methods; Objectives of social and survey and technical survey, types
of social and technical survey, Steps in social and technical surveys, Pilot survey


Survey research is a widely used method in social sciences to collect data from a large sample of individuals or groups. Surveys are a valuable tool to collect data on attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and characteristics of a population. The survey method is often used in social sciences such as psychology, sociology, political science, and market research.

The importance of survey research lies in its ability to provide a representative sample of a population, and the data collected can be used to generalize findings to the larger population. Survey research can also provide insights into complex social phenomena and help to identify trends or changes in attitudes or behaviors over time.

Compared to other research methods, survey research has several advantages, including the ability to collect data from a large sample, the ability to standardize questions and responses, and the ability to collect data efficiently and cost-effectively. However, survey research also has some limitations, including the potential for bias and the inability to establish causality.

There are two main types of survey research: social surveys and technical surveys. Social surveys are designed to collect data on social phenomena such as attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, while technical surveys are designed to collect data on technical or specialized topics such as health or technology.

The steps involved in conducting a survey research study include:

    Defining the research question and objectives
    Selecting the appropriate survey method and type of survey
    Developing the survey instrument or questionnaire
    Sampling the population to be surveyed
    Administering the survey
    Collecting and analyzing the data
    Reporting the findings.

Before conducting the main survey, researchers often conduct a pilot survey to test the survey instrument, identify any potential problems, and make necessary changes to improve the survey's quality and validity.




The pilot survey is typically conducted with a small sample size of the target population, and the results are used to refine the survey instrument and procedures.

There are several important considerations when designing and conducting a survey research study. These include ensuring that the survey instrument is valid and reliable, selecting an appropriate sample size and sampling method, minimizing response bias and nonresponse bias, and protecting the confidentiality and privacy of participants.

In addition, survey research can be conducted using different modes of administration, such as face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, mail surveys, or online surveys. Each mode of administration has its own advantages and limitations, and the choice of mode will depend on the research question, the population being surveyed, and the available resources.

Overall, survey research is a valuable research method in social sciences that can provide insights into complex social phenomena and inform decision-making in various fields, including public policy, market research, and social and behavioral sciences.

Case study: Introduction, Types of case studies: Exploratory and Hypothesis testing; Steps in
case studies, Sources of case data, limitations.


Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves in-depth investigation and analysis of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. It is a comprehensive approach to understanding complex social, organizational, or cultural issues that are not easily studied using other research methods.

There are two types of case studies: exploratory and hypothesis testing. Exploratory case studies are designed to gain an understanding of a particular phenomenon or situation, whereas hypothesis testing case studies are designed to test a theoretical framework or hypothesis.

The steps involved in conducting a case study include:

    Defining the research question and objectives
    Selecting a case or cases to study
    Collecting data through various methods such as observation, interviews, and document analysis
    Analyzing the data
    Reporting the findings.

Case studies can be based on a variety of sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts. Multiple sources of data are often used to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon being studied.

One of the main strengths of case study research is its ability to provide rich and detailed data that can be used to develop a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon. Case studies can also be used to test theoretical frameworks and hypotheses.

However, there are also some limitations to case study research. The findings of a case study cannot be generalized to a larger population, and there is the potential for researcher bias in the collection and analysis of data. In addition, case studies can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.




Another limitation of case study research is the potential for a lack of objectivity. Researchers conducting case studies may become too involved with the subjects or the setting being studied, which can lead to bias in the data collection and analysis process.

To address these limitations, researchers can take several steps, such as using multiple sources of data to triangulate findings, using standardized data collection and analysis procedures, and engaging in reflexivity to monitor and reflect on their own biases and assumptions.

Overall, case study research is a valuable method for gaining a deeper understanding of complex phenomena and can provide important insights into real-world issues. However, it is important for researchers to carefully consider the strengths and limitations of this method when designing and conducting their studies. 

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